For the field experiments, seedlings were established at a seeding rate of 112 kg/ha (about 215 seeds/m2 or 46.5 cm2 space per seedling) and grown following standard cultural methods for American ginseng [18]. Seeds were planted on raised soil beds and covered with 5–10 cm of straw mulch. Woven black polypropylene shade was placed 2 m above the beds to reduce solar radiation to an optimal 20–30% of full sunlight. Standard commercial practices for pest control were followed [18]. Field experiments were carried out with 2-, 3-, and 4-yr-old mTOR inhibitor therapy plants using 1-m2 plots having guards also of 1 m2. Treatments of B were 1.5 kg/ha (control) and 8 kg/ha. They were replicated four times in a randomized

complete block design with four blocks. The broadcast soil-applied commercial fertilizer was applied prior to crop emergence and was based on superphosphate, potassium chloride,

ammonium sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and zinc sulfate (N 9.0%, P 7.0%, K 7.4%, Ca 8.5%, S 9.8%, Mg 8%, and Zn 0.9%). Sodium borate (14% B) was added to the blended mixture to produce final B rates of 1.5 kg/ha and 8 kg/ha. These pot experiments were carried out in a greenhouse without supplemental lighting at the University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario; latitude 43° 32′ N, longitude 80° 15′ W. Ginseng mature stratified seeds were purchased from a local Ontario grower in October. These seeds were mixed with moistened mortar sand selleckchem (1 seed/3 sand, v/v) and put in plastic containers that were held in a controlled-environment room (4 ± 1 °C, 50 ± 5% relative humidity) until the experiments were started in January. For the radish (Raphanus sativus L. cv. Cherry Belle), experimental seeds were purchased from a commercial seed house. For the pot experiments with the two plant species, 10 seeds

were planted equidistant within each wide (21 cm diameter) and deep (21 cm) pot. Seed germination averaged 60%. Seeding depths of 40 mm for ginseng and 20 mm for radish were used. The germination and growing medium for all seedlings was vermiculite. The pots were PIK3C2G filled to within 3 cm of the top with the vermiculite. Light transmission of the greenhouse was measured with a quantum, or line quantum, sensor (LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA). For the ginseng greenhouse experiments, 30% of the incident light at the top of the seedlings was established by suspending different thicknesses of knitted black polypropylene shade cloth above the pots. Radish plants were grown under ambient light. For each experiment, repeated at least twice, there was a minimum of four pots per treatment in a completely randomized design. Plants were managed and fertilized as described previously [15]. Every 3rd day plants were fertilized with 1 L full-strength Hoagland’s solution as described by Knott et al [19].